Equivalent (and Near-Equivalent) Ragas in Hindustani and Carnatic Music. The hindustaani equivalent of a mELaa is called a thaaT. All hindustaani ragas are classified under 10 thaaTs. Names in brackets are mELaa names. The thaaTs are as follows: 1. KalyaaN (mEcakalyaaNi) 2. Bilaaval (dheera shankaraabharaNam). The genres we work with are rooted in Indian classical performing arts and include Carnatic music (South Indian classical music), Hindustani music (North Indian classical music), semi-classical.
Carnatic music |
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Concepts |
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Instruments |
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Carnatic raga refers to ragas used in Carnatic music. A Carnatic raga has several components - primordial sound (nāda), tonal system (swara), pitch (śruti), scale, ornaments (gamaka) and important tones.
- 1Origins and history
- 1.1Carnatic raga classification
- 1.1.1Janaka ragas (Melakarta ragas) and Janya ragas(Upanga ragas)
- 1.1Carnatic raga classification
- 2Components of Carnatic raga
- 3Raga in improvisation
- 3.1Types
- 5Raga in non-classical traditions
- 6Raga and light classical music
Origins and history[edit]
Carnatic raga classification[edit]
Janaka ragas (Melakarta ragas) and Janya ragas(Upanga ragas)[edit]
Janaka ragas or Sampoorna ragas are parent ragas from which more ragas are derived. Sampoorna ragas as the name suggest are those in which all 7 swaras are present. They are also called Melakarta ragas. These ragas have all 7 swaras or [notes] in their scales (only one of each swara, Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni), following strict ascending and descending scales and are sung in all octaves. Example of melakartha ragas are : Shankarabharanam, Kalyani, Natabhairavi, Chala Nattai, Harikambhoji, Kharaharapriya, Mayamalavagowla, Chakravakam etc.Janya ragas are ragas that are derived from Janaka ragas (Melakarta ragas). They may have less than 7 notes in their scales, or have additional notes in them, zig-zag (vakra) notes that step up and down, asymmetrical scales, etc. Janya raga is also called as Upanga raga. Example of Upanga ragas are : Malahari, Mohanam, Begada, Shriragam, Hamsadhvani, Bilahari, Vasanta, Kambhoji, Janaranjani, Hindolam, Todi etc.
72 Melakartha ragas (Mathematical computation)[edit]
There are different types of swara sthayis or note pitches that leads to the total number of melakartha ragas. These different variations of swaras leads to more than one combination of musical scale. The different variations in swaras is mentioned below. Using this it is possible to mathematically ascertain the total number of melakartha ragas.
Sa (Shadja) - only one.
Ri (Rishabha) - Shuddha, Chathushruthi and Shatshruti Rishabha in increasing order of pitch.
Ga (Gandhara) - Shuddha, Sadharana, Antara Gandhara in increasing order of pitch.
Ma (Madhyama) - Shuddha, Prathi Madhyama in increasing order of pitch.
Pa(Panchama)- only one.
Dha (Daivata) -Shuddha, Chatushruti, Shatshruti Daivata in increasing order of pitch.
Ni (Nishada)- Shuddha, Kaishiki, Kakali Nishadham in increasing order of pitch.
However, there are only some combinations that are allowed as for instance Shatshruthi Ri can combine with Antara Gandhara and Chathushruti Rishabha can combine with Sadharana and Antara Gandhara only. Likewise the same principle holds good for Da and Ni. If we label these swaras as Sa, Ra, Ri, Ru, Ga, Gi, Gu, Ma, Mi, Pa, Dha, Dhi, Dhu, Na, Ni, Nu.
The total combinations are:
a) 1 Sa X 1 Ra X 3(Ga, Gi, Gu) Ga + 1 Sa X Ru X 2 Ga (Gu, Gi) + 1 Sa X Ri X Gu = 6.
b) Ma, Mi =2
c) 1 Pa X Dha X 3 Ni (Na, Ni, Nu)+ 1 Pa X Dhu X 2 Ni (Nu, Ni)+ 1 Pa X Dhi X Ni =6
Multiplying these 3 combinations we get 72.
Sa (Shadja) - only one.
Ri (Rishabha) - Shuddha, Chathushruthi and Shatshruti Rishabha in increasing order of pitch.
Ga (Gandhara) - Shuddha, Sadharana, Antara Gandhara in increasing order of pitch.
Ma (Madhyama) - Shuddha, Prathi Madhyama in increasing order of pitch.
Pa(Panchama)- only one.
Dha (Daivata) -Shuddha, Chatushruti, Shatshruti Daivata in increasing order of pitch.
Ni (Nishada)- Shuddha, Kaishiki, Kakali Nishadham in increasing order of pitch.
However, there are only some combinations that are allowed as for instance Shatshruthi Ri can combine with Antara Gandhara and Chathushruti Rishabha can combine with Sadharana and Antara Gandhara only. Likewise the same principle holds good for Da and Ni. If we label these swaras as Sa, Ra, Ri, Ru, Ga, Gi, Gu, Ma, Mi, Pa, Dha, Dhi, Dhu, Na, Ni, Nu.
The total combinations are:
a) 1 Sa X 1 Ra X 3(Ga, Gi, Gu) Ga + 1 Sa X Ru X 2 Ga (Gu, Gi) + 1 Sa X Ri X Gu = 6.
b) Ma, Mi =2
c) 1 Pa X Dha X 3 Ni (Na, Ni, Nu)+ 1 Pa X Dhu X 2 Ni (Nu, Ni)+ 1 Pa X Dhi X Ni =6
Multiplying these 3 combinations we get 72.
The 72 melakartha ragas are arranged in a cycle called katapayadi sutra which is named so because by the index of the raga we can get the name of the raga and the exact swara combination. The first 36 melakartha ragas have suddha madhyama whereas, the next 36 ragas have prathi madhyama.
The 72 combinations of melakartha ragas gives rise to a huge variety of musical flavours. Any sampurna raga is present in this 72 melakartha cycle. From these 72 melakartha ragas, there are more than a thousand janya ragas that contain more beautiful musical notations. While getting to know the details of a raga, it is important to know which sampurna raga the janya raga is derived from in order to know the swara types.[1]
Janya ragas[edit]
Janya ragas are ragas that are derived from Janaka ragas (Melakarta ragas). They may have less than 7 notes in their scales, or have additional notes in them, zig-zag (vakra) notes that step and down, asymmetrical scales, etc. See full list of Janya ragas. E.g. of janya ragas are bilahari and hamsadhwani (derived from shankarabharana), sriranjani and darbar (derived from kharaharapriya) and so on.
Vakra ragas[edit]
Vakra ragas are janya ragas that have swaras arranged in a zig zag manner. For e.g. Raga Sri has the following arohanam and avarohanam :S R M P N S. S. N P M R G R S. Such a raga is called vakra raga.
Auḍava rāgas[edit]
Auḍava rāgas are janya ragas that have exactly five notes in ascending and descending scale (arohana and avarohana). Examples are :
1)Mohanam (S R G P D S. S. D P G R S)
2)Hamsadhwani (S R G P N S. S. N P G R S)
1)Mohanam (S R G P D S. S. D P G R S)
2)Hamsadhwani (S R G P N S. S. N P G R S)
Components of Carnatic raga[edit]
A Carnatic raga has several components - primordial sound (nāda), tonal system (swara), intervals (shruti), scale, ornaments (gamaka) and important tones (vadi and samvadi).
Nāda[edit]
An aim of composer-performers of the past and present is to realise nāda, however, the sound that is audible to human ears is only a fraction of primordial sound.[2]
Swara[edit]
The Carnatic tonal system consists of seven basic pitches, expressed by the solfa syllables: Sa (shadja), Ri (rishabha), Ga (gandhara), Ma (madhyama), Pa (panchama), Da (dhaivata) and Ni (nishadha).
Scale[edit]
A Carnatic raga consists of an ascending and descending scale pattern (known as aarohana and avarohana respectively). Both ascent and descent should have at least five tones, although rarer ragas contain fewer tones. Scales establish rules for all performers to adhere to in melodic performance, and provide a tonal boundary. Typical scale features also act to help listeners identify ragas.[3]
Gamaka[edit]
Gamaka, or ornamentation, is essential in Carnatic raga performance. Gamaka encompasses controlled shaking, articulating, sliding, glottal stops and other vocal or instrumental manipulation.[3]
The swara and scale defines only the skeletal structure of a raga. The handling of Gamaka actually defines the raga.
Raga in improvisation[edit]
Bharat Ratna M. S. Subbulakshmi, renowned vocalist of Carnatic classical music
Types[edit]
Improvisation in raga is the soul of Indian classical music[4] - an essential aspect.[5] 'Manodharma sangeetham' or 'kalpana sangeetham' ('music of imagination') as it is known in Carnatic music, embraces several varieties of improvisation.[5][6]
Raga Alapana[edit]
An alapana, sometimes also called ragam,[7] is the exposition of a raga or tone - a slow improvisation with no rhythm,[8] where the raga acts as the basis of embellishment.[9] In performing alapana, performers consider each raga as an object that has beginnings and endings and consists somehow of sequences of thought.[9]
The performer will explore the ragam and touch on its various nuances,[7] singing in the lower octaves first, then gradually moving up to higher octaves, while giving a hint of the song to be performed.[8]
Niraval[edit]
Niraval, usually performed by the more advanced performers, consists of singing one or two lines of a song repeatedly, but with a series of melodic improvised elaborations.[10] The lines are then also played at different levels of speed which can include double speed, triple speed, quadruple speed and even sextuple speed.[11]
Kalpanaswaram[edit]
Kalpanaswaram, also known as swarakalpana, consists of improvising melodic and rhythmic passages using swaras (solfa syllables).[12] Kalpanaswaras are sung to end on a particular swara in the raga of the melody and at a specific place (idam) in the tala cycle.[13] Generally, the swaras are sung to end on the samam (the first beat of the rhythmical cycle), and can be sung at the same speed or double the speed of the melody that is being sung, though some artists sing triple-speed phrases too.[11]
Tanam[edit]
Tanam is one of the most important forms of improvisation, and is integral to Ragam-Tanam-Pallavi.[14] Originally developed for the veena, it consists of expanding the raga with syllables like tha, nam, thom, aa, nom, na, etc.
Ragam-Tanam-Pallavi[edit]
Ragam-Tanam-Pallavi is the principal long form in concerts,[14] and is a composite form of improvisation. As the name suggests, it consists of raga alapana, tanam, and a pallavi line. Set to a slow-paced tala, the pallavi line is often composed by the performer. Through niraval, the performer manipulates the pallavi line in complex melodic and rhythmic ways.[7] The niraval is followed by kalpanaswarams.
Learning and performing[edit]
When learning a raga, it is never enough just to know the basic scale of the raga. In fact, different ragas can sometimes have the same scales. For example, the raga pairs Bhairavi and Manji, Mayamalavagowla and Nadanamakriya, Bilahari and Mand, Shankarabharanam and Kurinji, among others, have exactly the same scale, but are clearly distinct ragas due to the way the notes and musical phrases are rendered. In addition, the scale of the raga often does not offer insight into some of the subtleties of the raga, such as usage of gamakas, anya swaras, and ragabhavam. This is especially true for heavier ragas like Yadhukula Kambodhi, Thodi, Sahana, Huseni, Varali, etc.
An interesting case[according to whom?] to observe is the similarity between the ragas Darbar and Nayaki. Both are upanga janyas of the 22nd mela Kharaharapriya, and have similar patterns in both their ascending and descending scales. However the two ragas are distinctly different, especially where the usage of the gandhara and nishada are concerned. When singing Darbar, these swaras are rendered more quickly with gamaka, and shine especially well when jante prayogas are used in the descending. On the other hand, these swaras are more elongated in Nayaki, as illustrated in the pallavi of Muttusvami Dikshitar's famous composition, RanganayakamBhavayeham.
The best way to learn a raga and account for all its subtleties, therefore, is to refer to compositions, which often contain a wealth of phrases that lend beauty to the raga. Before an artist attempts to sing a raga, he or she should be familiar with several compositions in that raga. He or she should have also listened to many different renderings of the raga by various artists, in order to get a better sense of how certain phrases can be applied.[according to whom?]
Improvisation and gender[edit]
Raga in dance and drama[edit]
Raga in non-classical traditions[edit]
Raga in devotional poetry and song[edit]
Raga in Harikatha[edit]
The Harikatha tradition, which originated in the Indian state of Maharashtra, involves popular storytelling combined with dance and music. Krishna Bhagavathar, an exponent of Carnatic music, is responsible for creating the South Indian harikatha style - singing in raga, dancing with tala, and narrating stories in a manner that sustains the attention of the audience. In effect, harikatha is an art form that requires knowledge of raga, Carnatic music, dance, speech, diction and dramatic technique. Harikatha performance aims to communicate with non-literate and literate audiences.[15]
Well-known harikatha performers had sound knowledge of Carnatic music in the early part of the 20th century - some were well established Carnatic musicians, while others were composers. Today, a few performers keep this tradition alive, and use ragas from both Carnatic music and Hindustani music traditions.[15]
Raga and light classical music[edit]
Raga in film songs[edit]
In south Indian cinema you will find many examples where a film song is composed based on a carnatic raga or song. Generally pleasant ragas like Mohanam, Shankarabharanam, Kalyani etc. find their way into numerous film songs.
Here are some excerpts from Tamil cinema :
Adhisaya Ragam from Aboorva Ragangal movie - Mahathi raga.
Aadatha manamum undo from Manadhi Mannan movie - Lathangi Raga.
Pon enben from Policekaran magal movie - Darbari Kanada Raga.
Paatum Naane from Thiruvilaiyadal movie - Gowrimanohari Raga.
Maname muruganin from Motor sundaram pillai Movie - Hindolam Raga.
Thenavan Thaainaatu singarame from Tenaliraman movie - Reethi Gowla Raga.
Isaiketaal puvi from Thavapudhalvan movie - Kalyani Raga.
Thanga Radham vandhadhu from Kalaikovil movie - Abhogi Raga.
Sivakami Aadavandhal from Paatum Bharathamum movie - Amritavarshini Raga.
Nadhamenum Kovilile from Manamadha leelai movie - Sri ranjani Raga.
Poi vaa magale from Karnan movie - Aananda Bhairavi Raga.
Kallellam Maanika kallaguma from Alayamani movie - Mayamalavagowla Raga.
Maadhavi Ponmayilaal from Iru Malargal Movie - Karaharapriya Raga.
Pon ondru kanden from Padithaal matum podhuma - Brindavana Saranga Raga
Aadal Kalaye Deivam Thandhadhu from Raghavendra movie - Charukesi Raga.
Rukku Rukku from Avvai Shanmukhi - Sahana Raga.
Kalaivaniye from Sindhu Bhairavi - Kalyani Raga.
Poomalai Vangi from Sindhu Bhairavi - Kanada Raga.
Kannodu Kanbadethallam from Jeans - Abheri Raga.
Sorgame Enralum - Hamsanadam Raga.
Here are some excerpts from Tamil cinema :
Adhisaya Ragam from Aboorva Ragangal movie - Mahathi raga.
Aadatha manamum undo from Manadhi Mannan movie - Lathangi Raga.
Pon enben from Policekaran magal movie - Darbari Kanada Raga.
Paatum Naane from Thiruvilaiyadal movie - Gowrimanohari Raga.
Maname muruganin from Motor sundaram pillai Movie - Hindolam Raga.
Thenavan Thaainaatu singarame from Tenaliraman movie - Reethi Gowla Raga.
Isaiketaal puvi from Thavapudhalvan movie - Kalyani Raga.
Thanga Radham vandhadhu from Kalaikovil movie - Abhogi Raga.
Sivakami Aadavandhal from Paatum Bharathamum movie - Amritavarshini Raga.
Nadhamenum Kovilile from Manamadha leelai movie - Sri ranjani Raga.
Poi vaa magale from Karnan movie - Aananda Bhairavi Raga.
Kallellam Maanika kallaguma from Alayamani movie - Mayamalavagowla Raga.
Maadhavi Ponmayilaal from Iru Malargal Movie - Karaharapriya Raga.
Pon ondru kanden from Padithaal matum podhuma - Brindavana Saranga Raga
Aadal Kalaye Deivam Thandhadhu from Raghavendra movie - Charukesi Raga.
Rukku Rukku from Avvai Shanmukhi - Sahana Raga.
Kalaivaniye from Sindhu Bhairavi - Kalyani Raga.
Poomalai Vangi from Sindhu Bhairavi - Kanada Raga.
Kannodu Kanbadethallam from Jeans - Abheri Raga.
Sorgame Enralum - Hamsanadam Raga.
In Hindi cinema:
Mand Raaga - Tu Chanda main Chandani (Reshma aur Shera)
Mand Raaga - Tu Chanda main Chandani (Reshma aur Shera)
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carnatic rāga. |
Notes[edit]
- ^http://www.karnatik.com/melas.shtml
- ^Kassebaum (2000), p91
- ^ abKassebaum (2000), p93
- ^MacCarthy, M. (1912). 'Some Indian Conceptions of Music'. Proceedings of the Musical Association. 38th Sess: 41–65. doi:10.1093/jrma/38.1.41.
- ^ abKassebaum, G. R. (1987). 'Improvisation in Alapana Performance: A Comparative View of Raga Shankarabharana'. Yearbook for Traditional Music. 19: 45–64. doi:10.2307/767877. JSTOR767877.
- ^Kassebaum (2000), p17
- ^ abcWolf, R. (1999). 'untitled'. Asian Music. 30 (1): 199–203.
- ^ abRoyal Carpet: Glossary of Carnatic Terms R
- ^ abNettl, Bruno (1974). 'Thoughts On Improvisation: A Comparative Approach'. Musical Quarterly. LX: 9–12. doi:10.1093/mq/LX.1.1.
- ^Higgins, J. B. (1987). 'Performing Arts in India: Essays on Music, Dance, and Drama'. Asian Music. 18 (2): 103–118. doi:10.2307/833942.
- ^ abHenry, E. O. (2002). 'The Rationalization of Intensity in Indian Music'. Ethnomusicology. 46 (1): 33–35. doi:10.2307/852807. JSTOR852807.
- ^Viswanathan & Cormack (1998), p219
- ^Viswanathan & Cormack (1998), p221
- ^ abPalackal, J. J. (1998). 'untitled'. Yearbook for Traditional Music. 30: 207–207. doi:10.2307/768616.
- ^ abKassebaum (2000), p106
References[edit]
- Kassebaum, Gayathri Rajapur. ‘Karnatak raga’ (2000). In Arnold, Alison. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. New York & London: Taylor & Francis.
- Karnataka Sangeetha Darpana, by Smt. T Sharada and T Shachidevi, Part 2 in Kannada and English
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carnatic_raga&oldid=886644982'
A raag performance at Collège des Bernardins, France
Indian classical music |
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Concepts |
A raga or raag (IAST: rāga; also raaga or ragam ; literally 'coloring, tingeing, dyeing'[1][2]) is a melodic framework for improvisation akin to a melodic mode in Indian classical music.[3] While the rāga is a remarkable and central feature of the classical Indian music tradition, it has no direct translation to concepts in the classical European music tradition.[4][5] Each rāga is an array of melodic structures with musical motifs, considered in the Indian tradition to have the ability to 'colour the mind' and affect the emotions of the audience.[1][2][5]
A rāga consists of at least five notes, and each rāga provides the musician with a musical framework within which to improvise.[3][6][7] The specific notes within a rāga can be reordered and improvised by the musician. Rāgas range from small rāgas like Bahar and Shahana that are not much more than songs to big rāgas like Malkauns, Darbari and Yaman, which have great scope for improvisation and for which performances can last over an hour. Rāgas may change over time, with an example being Marwa, the primary development of which has gone down to the lower octave compared to the traditionally middle octave.[8] Each rāga traditionally has an emotional significance and symbolic associations such as with season, time and mood.[3] The rāga is considered a means in Indian musical tradition to evoke certain feelings in an audience. Hundreds of rāga are recognized in the classical tradition, of which about 30 are common.[3][7] Each rāga, state Dorothea E. Hast and others,[clarification needed] has its 'own unique melodic personality'.[9]
There are two main classical music traditions, Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian), and the concept of rāga is shared by both.[6]Rāga are also found in Sikh traditions such as in Guru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture of Sikhism.[10] Similarly it is a part of the qawwali tradition found in Sufi Islamic communities of South Asia.[11] Some popular Indian film songs and ghazals use rāgas in their compositions.[12]
- 4Description
- 10References
Etymology[edit]
The Sanskrit word rāga (Sanskrit: राग) has Indo-European roots, as *reg- which connotes 'to dye'. It is found in Greek, Persian, Khwarezmian and other languages, in variants such as 'raxt', 'rang', 'rakt' and others. The words 'red' and 'rado' are also related.[13]
Terminology[edit]
Rāga (Sanskrit: राग), states Monier Monier-Williams, comes from a Sanskrit word for 'the act of colouring or dyeing', or simply a 'colour, hue, tint, dye'.[14] The term also connotes an emotional state referring to a 'feeling, affection, desire, interest, joy or delight', particularly related to passion, love, or sympathy for a subject or something.[15] In the context of ancient Indian music, the term refers to a harmonious note, melody, formula, building block of music available to a musician to construct a state of experience in the audience.[14]
The word appears in the ancient Principal Upanishads of Hinduism, as well as the Bhagavad Gita.[16] For example, verse 3.5 of the Maitri Upanishad and verse 2.2.9 of the Mundaka Upanishad contain the word rāga. The Mundaka Upanishad uses it in its discussion of soul (Atman-Brahman) and matter (Prakriti), with the sense that the soul does not 'color, dye, stain, tint' the matter.[17] The Maitri Upanishad uses the term in the sense of 'passion, inner quality, psychological state'.[16][18] The term rāga is also found in ancient texts of Buddhism where it connotes 'passion, sensuality, lust, desire' for pleasurable experiences as one of three impurities of a character.[19][20] Alternatively, rāga is used in Buddhist texts in the sense of 'color, dye, hue'.[19][20][21]
Raga groups are called Thaat.[22]
The term rāga in the modern connotation of a melodic format occurs in the Brihaddeshi by Matanga dated ca. 8th century,[23] or possibly 9th century.[24] The Brihaddeshi describes rāga as 'a combination of tones which, with beautiful illuminating graces, pleases the people in general'.[25]
According to Emmie Te Nijenhuis, a professor in Indian musicology, the Dattilam section of Brihaddeshi has survived into the modern times, but the details of ancient music scholars mentioned in the extant text suggest a more established tradition by the time this text was composed.[23] The same essential idea and prototypical framework is found in ancient Hindu texts, such as the Naradiyasiksa and the classic Sanskrit work Natya Shastra by Bharata Muni, whose chronology has been estimated to sometime between 500 BCE and 500 CE,[26] probably between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[27]
Bharata describes a series of empirical experiments he did with the Veena, then compared what he heard, noting the relationship of fifth intervals as a function of intentionally induced change to the instrument's tuning. Bharata states that certain combination of notes are pleasant, certain not so. His methods of experimenting with the instrument triggered further work by ancient Indian scholars, leading to the development of successive permutations, as well as theories of musical note inter-relationships, interlocking scales and how this makes the listener feel.[24] Bharata discusses Bhairava, Kaushika, Hindola, Dipaka, SrI-rāga, and Megha. Bharata states that these have the ability to trigger a certain affection and the ability to 'color the emotional state' in the audience.[14][24] His encyclopedic Natyashastra links his studies on music to the performance arts, and it has been influential in Indian performance arts tradition.[28][29]
The other ancient text, Naradiyasiksa dated to be from the 1st century BCE, discusses secular and religious music, compares the respective musical notes.[30] This is earliest known text that reverentially names each musical note to be a deity, describing it in terms of varna (colors) and other motifs such as parts of fingers, an approach that is conceptually similar to the 12th century Guidonian hand in European music.[30] The study that mathematically arranges rhythms and modes (rāga) has been called prastara.(Khan 1996, p. 89, Quote: '(...) the Sanskrit word prastara, which means mathematical arrangement of rhythms and modes. In the Indian system of music there are about the 500 modes and 300 different rhythms which are used in everyday music. The modes are called Ragas.')[31]
In the ancient texts of Hinduism, the term for the technical mode part of rāga was Jati. Later, Jati evolved to mean quantitative class of scales, while rāga evolved to become a more sophisticated concept that included the experience of the audience.[32] A figurative sense of the word as 'passion, love, desire, delight' is also found in the Mahabharata. The specialized sense of 'loveliness, beauty,' especially of voice or song, emerges in classical Sanskrit, used by Kalidasa and in the Panchatantra.[33]
History and significance[edit]
Classical music has ancient roots, and it primarily developed due to the reverence for arts, for both spiritual (moksha) and entertainment (kama) purposes in Hinduism. The Buddha discouraged music aimed at low entertainment. Jatakas such as Gutila Jataka, showed how he was once born as a great musician and created music which was in tune with his own inner music and dance. As his veena broke, an orchestra and dancers from heaven continued to play and dance showing his inner purity defeating his arrogant student who only played an instrument. Listening to your inner music and 'being in tune' is encouraged by the various canonical Tipitaka texts of Buddhism, for example, state Dasha-shila or ten precepts for those following the Buddhist spiritual path. Among these is the precept recommending 'abstain from dancing, singing, music and worldly spectacles'.[34][35] Buddhism does not forbid music or dance to a Buddhist layperson, but its emphasis has been on chants, not on musical rāga.[36]
Rāga, along with performance arts such as dance and music, has been historically integral to Hinduism, with some Hindus believing that music is itself a spiritual pursuit and a means to moksha (liberation).[37][38][39]Rāgas, in the Hindu tradition, are believed to have a natural existence.[40] Artists don't invent them, they only discover them. Music appeals to human beings, according to Hinduism, because they are hidden harmonies of the ultimate creation.[40] Some of its ancient texts such as the Sama Veda (~1000 BCE) are structured entirely to melodic themes,[37][41] it is sections of Rigveda set to music.[42] The rāgas were envisioned by the Hindus as manifestation of the divine, a musical note treated as god or goddess with complex personality.[30]
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During the Bhakti movement of Hinduism, dated to about the middle of 1st millennium CE, rāga became an integral part of a musical pursuit of spirituality. Bhajan and Kirtan were composed and performed by the early South India pioneers. A Bhajan has a free form devotional composition based on melodic rāgas.[43][44] A Kirtan is a more structured team performance, typically with a call and response musical structure, similar to an intimate conversation. It includes two or more musical instruments,[45][46] and incorporates various rāgas such as those associated with Hindu gods Shiva (Bhairava) or Krishna (Hindola).[47]
The early 13th century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara, by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in Maharashtra, mentions and discusses 253 rāgas. This is one of the most complete historic treatises on the structure, technique and reasoning behind rāgas that has survived.[48][49][50]
The tradition of incorporating rāga into spiritual music is also found in Jainism,[51] and in Sikhism, an Indian religion founded by Guru Nanak in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent.[52] In the Sikh scripture, the texts are attached to a rāga and are sung according to the rules of that rāga.[53][54] According to Pashaura Singh – a professor of Sikh and Punjabi studies, the rāga and tala of ancient Indian traditions were carefully selected and integrated by the Sikh Gurus into their hymns. They also picked from the 'standard instruments used in Hindu musical traditions' for singing kirtans in Sikhism.[54]
During the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in and after the 15th century, the mystical Islamic tradition of Sufism developed devotional songs and music called qawwali. It incorporated elements of rāga and tāla.[55][56]
Description[edit]
A rāga is sometimes explained as a melodic rule set that a musician works with, but according to Dorottya Fabian and others, this is now generally accepted among music scholars to be an explanation that is too simplistic. According to them, a rāga of the ancient Indian tradition is best described as 'a non-constructible set in music', just like non-constructible set in language for human communication, in a manner described by Frederik Kortlandt and George van Driem.[57]
Two Indian musicians performing a rāga duet called Jugalbandi.
The attempt to appreciate, understand and explain rāga among European scholars started in the early colonial period.[58] In 1784, Jones translated it as 'mode' of European music tradition, but Willard corrected him in 1834 with the statement that a rāga is both mode and tune. In 1933, states José Luiz Martinez – a professor of Music, Stern refined this explanation to 'the rāga is more fixed than mode, less fixed than the melody, beyond the mode and short of melody, and richer both than a given mode or a given melody; it is mode with added multiple specialities'.[58]
A rāga is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression, yet the concept has no direct Western translation. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of rāga cannot be offered in one or two sentences.[4]rāga is a fusion of technical and ideational ideas found in music, and may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression.[59] In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The rāga allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood.[59]
A rāga has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs.[7] A musician playing a rāga, states Bruno Nettl, may traditionally use just these notes, but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale.[7] The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each rāga, in order for the performance to create a rasa (mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling) that is unique to each rāga. A rāga can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of rāga are possible given 5 or more notes, but in practical use, the classical tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred.[7] For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty rāgas.[60]Rāga in Indian classic music is intimately related to tala or guidance about 'division of time', with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats).[61]
A rāga is not a tune, because the same rāga can yield an infinite number of tunes.[62] A rāga is not a scale, because many rāgas can be based on the same scale.[62][58] A rāga, according to Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to a mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a 'unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener'.[62] The goal of a rāga and its artist is to create rasa (essence, feeling, atmosphere) with music, as classical Indian dance does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various rāgas.[63]
Joep Bor of the Rotterdam Conservatory of Music defined rāga as a 'tonal framework for composition and improvisation.'[64]Nazir Jairazbhoy, chairman of UCLA's department of ethnomusicology, characterized rāgas as separated by scale, line of ascent and descent, transilience, emphasized notes and register, and intonation and ornaments.[65]
Rāag-Rāgini system[edit]
In the Hindu traditions, raga musical notes have personalities, and they are reverentially linked to gods and goddesses.[66] Left is Bhairava-Bharavi pair (Shiva), right is Vasanta raga-ragini (Krishna).
Rāginī (Devanagari: रागिनी) is a term for the 'feminine' counterpart of a 'masculine' rāga.[66] These are envisioned to parallel the god-goddess themes in Hinduism, and described variously by different medieval Indian music scholars. For example, the Sangita-darpana text of 15th-century Damodara Misra proposes six rāgas with thirty ragini, creating a system of thirty six, a system that became popular in Rajasthan.[67] In the north Himalayan regions such as Himachal Pradesh, the music scholars such as 16th century Mesakarna expanded this system to include eight descendants to each rāga, thereby creating a system of eighty four. After the 16th-century, the system expanded still further.[67]
In Sangita-darpana, the Bhairava rāga is associated with the following raginis: Bhairavi, Punyaki, Bilawali, Aslekhi, Bangli. In the Meskarna system, the masculine and feminine musical notes are combined to produce putra rāgas called Harakh, Pancham, Disakh, Bangal, Madhu, Madhava, Lalit, Bilawal.[[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|page needed]] ]-68'>[68]
This system is no longer in use today because the 'related' rāgas had very little or no similarity and the rāga-rāginī classification did not agree with various other schemes.
Rāgas and their symbolism[edit]
The North Indian rāga system is also called Hindustani, while the South Indian system is commonly referred to as Carnatic. The North Indian system suggests a particular time of a day or a season, in the belief that the human state of psyche and mind are affected by the seasons and by daily biological cycles and nature's rhythms. The South Indian system is closer to the text, and places less emphasis on time or season.[69][70]
The symbolic role of classical music through rāga has been both aesthetic indulgence and the spiritual purifying of one's mind (yoga). The former is encouraged in Kama literature (such as Kamasutra), while the latter appears in Yoga literature with concepts such as 'Nada-Brahman' (metaphysical Brahman of sound).[71][72][73]Hindola rāga, for example, is considered a manifestation of Kama (god of love), typically through Krishna. Hindola is also linked to the festival of dola,[71] which is more commonly known as 'spring festival of colors' or Holi. This idea of aesthetic symbolism has also been expressed in Hindu temple reliefs and carvings, as well as painting collections such as the ragamala.[72]
In ancient and medieval Indian literature, the rāga are described as manifestation and symbolism for gods and goddesses. Music is discussed as equivalent to the ritual yajna sacrifice, with pentatonic and hexatonic notes such as 'ni-dha-pa-ma-ga-ri' as Agnistoma, 'ri-ni-dha-pa-ma-ga as Asvamedha, and so on.[71]
In the Middle Ages, music scholars of India began associating each rāga with seasons. The 11th century Nanyadeva, for example, recommends that Hindola rāga is best in spring, Pancama in summer, Sadjagrama and Takka during the monsoons, Bhinnasadja is best in early winter, and Kaisika in late winter.[74] In the 13th century, Sarngadeva went further and associated rāga with rhythms of each day and night. He associated pure and simple rāgas to early morning, mixed and more complex rāgas to late morning, skillful rāgas to noon, love-themed and passionate rāgas to evening, and universal rāgas to night.[75]
Rāga and mathematics[edit]
According to Cris Forster, mathematical studies on systematizing and analyzing South Indian rāga began in the 16th century.[76] Computational studies of rāgas is an active area of musicology.[77][78]
Notations[edit]
Although notes are an important part of rāga practice, they alone do not make the rāga. A rāga is more than a scale, and many rāgas share the same scale. The underlying scale may have four, five, six or seven tones, called swaras (sometimes spelled as svara). The svara concept is found in the ancient Natya Shastra in Chapter 28. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Śruti,[79] with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows,[80]
तत्र स्वराः –
षड्जश्च ऋषभश्चैव गान्धारो मध्यमस्तथा ।
पञ्चमो धैवतश्चैव सप्तमोऽथ निषादवान् ॥ २१॥
षड्जश्च ऋषभश्चैव गान्धारो मध्यमस्तथा ।
पञ्चमो धैवतश्चैव सप्तमोऽथ निषादवान् ॥ २१॥
These seven degrees are shared by both major rāga system, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic).[83] The solfege (sargam) is learnt in abbreviated form: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Of these, the first that is 'sa', and the fifth that is 'pa', are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems.[83]
Svara (Long) | Sadja (षड्ज) | Rsabha (ऋषभ) | Gandhara (गान्धार) | Madhyama (मध्यम) | Pañcama (पञ्चम) | Dhaivata (धैवत) | Nisada (निषाद) |
Svara (Short) | Sa (सा) | Re (रे) | Ga (ग) | Ma (म) | Pa (प) | Dha (ध) | Ni (नि) |
12 Varieties (names) | C (sadja) | D♭ (komal re), D (suddha re) | E♭ (komal ga), E (suddha ga) | F (suddha ma), F♯ (tivra ma) | G (pancama) | A♭ (komal dha), A (suddha dha) | B♭ (komal ni), B (suddha ni) |
Svara (Long) | Shadjam (षड्ज) | Rsabham (ऋषभ) | Gandharam (गान्धार) | Madhyamam (मध्यम) | Pañcamam (पञ्चम) | Dhaivatam (धैवत) | Nishadam (निषाद) |
Svara (Short) | Sa (सा) | Ri (री) | Ga (ग) | Ma (म) | Pa (प) | Dha (ध) | Ni (नि) |
16 Varieties (names) | C (sadja) | D♭ (suddha ri), D♯ (satsruti ri), D♮ (catussruti ri) | E♭ (sadarana ga), E (suddha ga), E♮ (antara ga) | F♯ (prati ma), F♮ (suddha ma) | G (pancama) | A♭ (suddha dha), A♯ (satsruti dha), A♮ (catussruti dha) | B♭ (kaisiki ni), B (suddha ni), B♮ (kakali ni) |
The music theory in the Natyashastra, states Maurice Winternitz, centers around three themes – sound, rhythm and prosody applied to musical texts.[86] The text asserts that the octave has 22 srutis or microintervals of musical tones or 1200 cents.[79] Ancient Greek system is also very close to it, states Emmie Te Nijenhuis, with the difference that each sruti computes to 54.5 cents, while the Greek enharmonic quartertone system computes to 55 cents.[79] The text discusses gramas (scales) and murchanas (modes), mentioning three scales of seven modes (21 total), some Greek modes are also like them .[87] However, the Gandhara-grama is just mentioned in Natyashastra, while its discussion largely focuses on two scales, fourteen modes and eight four tanas (notes).[88][89][90] The text also discusses which scales are best for different forms of performance arts.[87]
These musical elements are organized into scales (mela), and the South Indian system of rāga works with 72 scales, as first discussed by Caturdandi prakashika.[85] They are divided into two groups, purvanga and uttaranga, depending on the nature of the lower tetrachord. The anga itself has six cycles (cakra), where the purvanga or lower tetrachord is anchored, while there are six permutations of uttaranga suggested to the artist.[85] After this system was developed, the Indian classical music scholars have developed additional rāgas for all the scales. The North Indian style is closer to the Western diatonic modes, and built upon the foundation developed by Bhatkhande using ten Thaat: kalyan, bilaval, khamaj, kafi, asavari, bhairavi, bhairav, purvi, marva and todi.[91] Some rāgas are common to both systems and have same names, such as kalyan performed by either is recognizably the same.[92] Some rāgas are common to both systems but have different names, such as malkos of Hindustani system is recognizably the same as hindolam of Carnatic system. However, some rāgas are named the same in the two systems, but they are different, such as todi.[92]
Rāgas that have four swaras are called surtara (सुरतर) rāgas; those with five swaras are called audava (औडव) rāgas; those with six, shaadava (षाडव); and with seven, sampurna (संपूर्ण, Sanskrit for 'complete'). The number of swaras may differ in the ascending and descending like rāga Bhimpalasi which has five notes in the ascending and seven notes in descending or Khamaj with six notes in the ascending and seven in the descending. Rāgas differ in their ascending or descending movements. Those that do not follow the strict ascending or descending order of swaras are called vakra (वक्र) ('crooked') rāgas.[citation needed]
Carnatic rāga[edit]
In Carnatic music, the principal rāgas are called Melakarthas, which literally means 'lord of the scale'. It is also called Asraya rāga meaning 'shelter giving rāga', or Janaka rāga meaning 'father rāga'.[93]
A Thaata in the South Indian tradition are groups of derivative rāgas, which are called Janya rāgas meaning 'begotten rāgas' or Asrita rāgas meaning 'sheltered rāgas'.[93] However, these terms are approximate and interim phrases during learning, as the relationships between the two layers are neither fixed nor has unique parent-child relationship.[93]
Janaka rāgas are grouped together using a scheme called Katapayadi sutra and are organised as Melakarta rāgas. A Melakarta rāga is one which has all seven notes in both the ārōhanam (ascending scale) and avarōhanam (descending scale). Some Melakarta rāgas are Harikambhoji, Kalyani, Kharaharapriya, Mayamalavagowla, Sankarabharanam and Todi.[94][95]Janya rāgas are derived from the Janaka rāgas using a combination of the swarams (usually a subset of swarams) from the parent rāga. Some janya rāgas are Abheri, Abhogi, Bhairavi, Hindolam, Mohanam and Kambhoji.[94][95]
Training[edit]
Classical music has been transmitted through music schools or through Guru-Shishya parampara (teacher-student tradition) through an oral tradition and practice. Some are known as gharana (houses), and their performances are staged through sabhas (music organizations).[96][97] Each gharana has freely improvised over time, and differences in the rendering of each rāga is discernible. In the Indian musical schooling tradition, the small group of students lived near or with the teacher, the teacher treated them as family members providing food and boarding, and a student learnt various aspects of music thereby continuing the musical knowledge of his guru.[98] The tradition survives in parts of India, and many musicians can trace their guru lineage.[99]
Persian Rāk[edit]
The music concept of Rāk in Persian is probably a pronunciation of rāga. According to Hormoz Farhat, it is unclear how this term came to Persia, it has no meaning in modern Persian language, and the concept of rāga is unknown in Persia.[100]
See also[edit]
- Carnatic raga
- Rāga, a documentary about the life and music of Ravi Shankar
References[edit]
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- ^Mehta 1995, pp. xxix, 248.
- ^Bor, Joep; Rao, Suvarnalata; Van der Meer, Wim; Harvey, Jane (1999). The Raga Guide. Nimbus Records. p. 181. ISBN978-0-9543976-0-9.
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- ^ abDehejia 2013, pp. 191–97.
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- ^Soubhik Chakraborty; Guerino Mazzola; Swarima Tewari; et al. (2014). Computational Musicology in Hindustani Music. Springer. pp. 15–16, 20, 53–54, 65–66, 81–82. ISBN978-3-319-11472-9.
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- ^ abcdRandel 2003, p. 815.
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- ^Te Nijenhuis 1974, pp. 14–25.
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- ^Randel 2003, pp. 815–816.
- ^ abRandel 2003, p. 816.
- ^ abcCaudhurī 2000, pp. 150–151.
- ^ abRaganidhi by P. Subba Rao, Pub. 1964, The Music Academy of Madras
- ^ abRagas in Carnatic music by Dr. S. Bhagyalekshmy, Pub. 1990, CBH Publications
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- ^Nettl et al. 1998, pp. 457–467.
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- ^Hormoz Farhat (2004). The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music. Cambridge University Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN978-0-521-54206-7.
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Raga. |
- Hindustani raag Sangeet Online A rare collection of more than 800 audio & video archives from 1902. Radio programs dedicated to famous raags.
- Online quick reference of rāgams in Carnatic music.
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